HPP 7

Present day countries, residing in regions such as Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, were not initially independent. In fact, these territories, before even establishing themselves as independent countries, faced several hardships. These struggles occurred during the conquest of these territories and the fight for independence from their conquerors. Although these hardships divided natives from their indigenous cultures, these hardships can be used to compare similarities among countries, in regard to their conquest and independence. Some commonalities among countries, both in the process of conquest and of independence, include harsh conditions during conquest, segregation and racism during conquest, and violence in order to gain independence.

            While under the rule of their conquerors, many territories faced harsh physical conditions. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, King Leopold treated natives of the Congo ruthlessly. For example, King Leopold required villages to provide four men a year to “work” as full-time slaves, whom worked for long endless hours. Yet, as if enslaving natives was not inhumane enough, King Leopold held wives and children hostage and cut off the hands of men who refused to work. Similarly, in the Philippines, the encomenderos not only neglected their obligations, but also abused natives. In addition, the conquerors were intolerant toward the natives’ old practices. Lastly, in Korea, food shortages occurred, as a result of the loss of Korean businesses and lands. In addition, the Japanese forced their language upon the Koreans, therefore showing intolerance toward the Koreans.  

            In addition to harsh conditions, conquerors also evoked segregation and racism toward natives. For example, in Rwanda, a strong segregation and racism occurred due to the division of the Tutsi and Hutu made by Belgians. Belgians divided these two groups by separating them and labeling them differently. In Jamaica, Europeans enslaved thousands of natives. These enslaved natives faced racism from the Europeans due to the fact that they suffered unfair and unequal rights. In Pakistan, segregation occurred as a result of the division between Muslims and Hindus. The British attempted to divide these two groups, but in the end failed.

            Though, with tough endurances during conquest, comes independence. However, not all countries won their independence peacefully. In Egypt, after being denied by the British government, natives became more and more violent. Eventually, the British government feared the spread of violence and granted Egypt’s independence. In Vietnam, natives fought aggressively in the first as well as the second Indochina War, also known as the Vietnam War, in order to gain independence. Although, initially, Lebanon did not involve itself in the Arab Israeli War of 1948, war broke out as a result of disagreements between Muslims and Christians. In the end, though, Lebanon and Israel agreed to end this war and therefore, Lebanon gained independence.

The Fight for Egypt!

Starting from 639 AD, when the Arabs conquered Egypt, it seemed as though everyone wanted a piece of the “Egyptian pie.” After the Arabs conquest of Egypt from 639 to 868, the Tulunid dynasty ruled the land until the Khshidid dynasty took over. (A) However, in 969 AD, the Fatimid dynasty began to control Egypt, only to be followed by the Ayyubid dynasty. (A) Yet, in the 16^th century, the Ottomans, who pursued the Mamluks, made their mark in Egypt’s history. The Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517 and maintained control over the land from 1517-1798. Like many other conquering nations, the Ottomans took control of Egypt in order to be provided with a source of taxation and a base of expansion. (A) There was a war between the Ottomans and Mamluks lasting from 1516-1517. It started when Selim I, the Ottoman sultan, attacked the Mamluk army in Syria. In 1516, the Ottomans defeated the Mamluks at Marj Dabiq. (A) During this battle against the Ottomans, the Mamluks lost their sultan, QanSuh al-Ghawri, in combat. The war ended with the defeat of the Mamluks as a result of two main events. After the death of QanSuh al-Ghawri, the Mamluks appointed a new sultan, who arrogantly repudiated terms for a settlement offered by Selim I. (A) This new sultan’s actions not only worsened the relationship between the Mamluks and Ottomans, but also led to the primary cause of the Mamluks defeat. Khayr Bey betrayed the Mamluks and aided the Ottomans in their war against the Mamluks. After their success against the Mamluks, the Ottomans then appointed Bey as their governor. However during the late 18^th century to early 19^th century, the fight for Egypt continued, but this time between the French and the British. Eventually though, Egypt won its independence from the British. However, before gaining their independence, Egypt experienced some colonialism from their conquerors.

Egypt's Colonial Experience

When the Ottomans conquered Egypt, colonialism began to impact the lives of Egyptians. While being under the control of the Ottomans, Ottoman soldiers harshly treated many Egyptians. For example, Ottoman soldiers plundered people's houses, kidnapped women from streets and public baths, and took anything they wanted without paying. (C) Similarly, Ottoman administrators and mamluk beys separately taxed Egyptians. (C) They justified their actions to the Egyptians by claiming “the taxes were rightfully due to them.” (C) Another occurrence of harsh treatment inflicted to Egyptians took place when an Ottoman governor sent a troop of Ottoman soldiers from Syria to villages in Egypt. The Ottoman soldiers not only attacked these villages, but also raped the women and seized women, children, and other movable items. (C) 

Although Egyptians suffered from Ottoman soldiers, the Ottoman Empire (and other conquerors, such as Britain and France) influenced Egypt in the long run, politically, culturally, linguistically, religiously, and educationally. During the Ottoman’s control over Egypt, a viceroy, with the help of an advisory council, ruled the land. Also, during the Ottoman’s reign, inspectors collected taxes from four different provinces. (A) Similarly, in modern day Egypt, there is a local council who assists the governor. These local councils also collect taxes from real estate within the governorate. (A)

Unfortunately, though, much history and culture was lost during the period of the Ottoman’s rule. For example, Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, was the only historian noteworthy during that time. (A) In addition, the Ottoman’s architectural achievements were also lacking.

Although Arabic is the official language of Egypt, many Egyptians are fluent in both English and French, the languages of Egypt’s prior conquerors. In addition, “the modern forms of style, word sequence, and phraseology are simpler and more flexible than in Classical Arabic and are often directly derivative of English or French.” (A)

Religiously, the Ottomans did not influence Egypt in the long run. For example, although Copts are the largest Christian domination in the present day Egypt, their traditions date from before the Arab conquest in the 7^th century. (A) However, the Ottomans continued to engage the participation of Copts in Egypt, by employing them in the financial offices of the bureaucracy. (A)

The French, one of Egypt’s conquerors, influenced Egyptian education. For example, during the 1950s, the majority of the foreign schools in Egypt were French. (A) As if today, many of these schools have been Egyptianized. Therefore, this demonstrates not only the influence of French culture in Egyptian education, but also the integration of French and Egyptian cultures.

Egypt Gains Independence!

Like many other territories, it was difficult for Egypt to win its independence. Initially, Egypt’s fight for independence did not involve violence. However, as soon as the British ignored Egypt's plea for independence, violence occurred. However, when Britain declared Egypt a protectorate, in 1914, and sent troops to guard the Suez Canal, more violence stirred, but also a nationalist movement formed. (B) This nationalist movement constituted of a group of politicians whom, collectively, called themselves the wafd. The group then appointed Saad Zaghlul, a former cabinet minister, as the leader of the wafd. (C) On November 13, 1918, the wafd met with Sir Reginald Wingate, the British High Commissioner, to discuss their presence at the Paris Peace Conference. (A) By attending the Paris Peace Conference, the wafd hoped that they would be able to present Egypt's case of gaining complete independence. However, the British government refused the request. Since the British government denied Egypt’s hearing at the Paris Peace Conference, Egypt did not have the opportunity to gain support from other nations during its struggle for independence. As a result, throughout 1919, Egypt became agitated and after the British arrested and deported Zaghlul to Malta, violence began to surface among the Egyptian people. (C) Realizing the great amount of violence coming from the Egyptians, the British government released the prisoners and allowed them to continue to the Paris Peace Conference. Egypt declined concessions offered by nationalists and once again violence arose and the British deported Zaghlul. (A) Then, Lord Allenby, the new British High Commissioner, chose to support the wafd. By supporting the wafd, Allenby hoped to outsmart Zaghlul and gain the alliance of many pro-British politicians in Egypt. (A) Therefore, Egypt gained its independence on February 28, 1922!